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Sweaty, shirtless football players lying on the pitch have seldom raised eyebrows as they did last week when photographs of European players struggling to train in the heat sparked concerns over sweltering US summer temperatures at the World Cup.

Scientists have long cautioned that extreme heat could disrupt sporting events. Last month, climate experts warned that one in four World Cup games could be played in very hot conditions, affecting fans and players alike.

Those warnings materialised last week; social media was abuzz with sunburnt players — mostly from European teams used to cooler climates — dousing themselves with water to cool off. Norway’s team even opted to wear ice collars around their necks during the friendly against Morocco.

But England captain Harry Kane quickly dismissed speculation over how much the heat would affect players, saying it “won’t be a factor”, thanks to his team’s World Cup training regimen.

So, how much will higher temperatures actually affect players at the World Cup? Al Jazeera takes a look.

What have experts said about heat during World Cup matches?

Th 2026 World Cup could be the hottest on record since the tournament began in 1930 due to a sharp rise in global temperatures, explained Al Jazeera weather presenter Everton Fox.

“Around half a dozen of the venues are prone to extreme heat; places like Dallas, Houston, Miami and the Mexican venues are all likely to swelter,” Fox said.

Daytime temperatures there are expected to average 28C, though the stadiums in Dallas, Houston and Atlanta have air conditioning.

Approximately 26 of the 104 matches could reach at least 26C in the Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) index — which measures how effectively the body can cool itself — while five games are expected to be played in conditions of 28C WB or higher, according to World Weather Attribution (WWA), a network of climate scientists.

Of those 26 matches, 17 will be played in stadiums with cooling systems, reducing risks for players and fans.

But more than a third of the games with a one in 10 chance of exceeding 26C will be in venues without air conditioning.

How do hotter temperatures impact athletes’ performance?

Heat stress due to increased humidity, exposure to solar radiation and the effects of wind speed will impact players running around in direct sunlight, Fox said.

“All this makes it harder for the body to cool down as it becomes harder for sweat to evaporate as quickly,” said Fox, a senior meteorologist with more than 30 years of experience.

Physical performance coach Raiyan Abbasi explained that, although the body sweats to achieve thermoregulation – a process that allows the body to maintain its core internal temperature – excessive sweating due to heat could lead to dehydration, cramps and increased fatigue.

Are athletes used to such high temperatures?

“Yes, the majority of athletes will know how to deal with this kind of heat since they’re elite players training and competing in various conditions,” said Abbasi, who has worked as a physical performance coach for British clubs Swansea and West Ham, as well as the Pakistan national side.

Teams will have a performance coach and medical staff to make sure players are ready for the tournament, including through acclimatisation, Abbasi explained – echoing what Kane said over the weekend after his side beat New Zealand 1-0 in Tampa, Florida, where temperatures soared beyond 30C.

Do athletes from hotter nations have an advantage?

World Cup nations whose players train in hotter climates may have a slight advantage when it comes to adjusting to high temperatures in the US.

“But essentially, countries that prepare and perform well can minimise that difference,” Abbasi said, adding that heat can be used positively too.

“Heat is a significant factor in creating good athletes; one way to improve athletic capabilities is to train in the heat.

“It can make big adaptations in your body to improve body temperature.”

Could the World Cup have been held before or after summer in the US?

Fox noted that international tournaments are traditionally in the European domestic off season, which is when the 2026 World Cup is being held.

“Ideally, US weather is most conducive in the spring and autumn, but you’d then be looking at the tornado season in spring and hurricane late summer through autumn before you even begin to think about their domestic sports which locals have more interest in,” Fox said.

What measures has FIFA taken for players and fans?

FIFA said it has carried out heat-risk planning, with measures including three-minute hydration breaks in each half of games, cooling infrastructure for fans and players, adapted work-rest cycles, and enhanced medical readiness that scale according to real-time conditions.

“The hydration breaks probably need to be longer to gain full benefit, but then you risk turning it into a game of four quarters,” Fox said jokingly, although he argued that FIFA could have confined games to northern parts of the US and Canada.

FIFA has also delayed kickoff times for some matches to start outside the hottest afternoon hours.

STRIKES across Portugal are set to go ahead tomorrow causing widespread disruption across the country.

Rail workers, cabin crew and public transport staff are all staging a walkout.

At its airports in Portugal, strike action is predicted to affect hundreds of flights with 500 at risk of being cancelled and delayed.

Over half of these flights are operated by TAP Air Portugal, as well as other Portugália and SATA services.

On social media, TAP Air Portugal said it would still operate a minimum of 79, it is also rebooking travel options for affected passengers.

The airline Air Europa has cancelled all of its flights between Madrid and Lisbon and Porto.

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The union added that easyJet and Ryanair flights are also expected to be impacted.

easyJet told Sun Travel: “Due to a national strike in Portugal on 3 June, like all airlines operating to and from the country we can expect some disruption to our flying programme. 

“We will be doing all we can to minimise the impact of the strike action and will contact customers directly with their options if their flights are affected.

“While this is outside of our control we are sorry for any inconvenience this strike action may cause.”

Ryanair however told The Independent that it did not expect any disruption and would operate as normal.

Away from airports, staff working for FECTRANS are expected to walkout.

This is expected to limit service on the Lisbon Metro and will disrupt those with travel plans across the city.

Union members include those working on the Porto Metro, so Porto is another city set to be majorly affected by the strike action.

Due to the sheer volume of staff strikes, it’s thought that the delays could impact travel on the following days, too.

Flight compensation rules

A look at your rights if a flight is delayed or cancelled, when your entitled to compensation and if your travel insurance can cover the costs.

What are my rights if my flight is cancelled or delayed?

Under UK law, airlines have to provide compensation if your flight arrives at its destination more than three hours late.

If you’re flying to or from the UK, your airline must let you choose a refund or an alternative flight.

You will be able to get your money back for the part of your ticket that you haven’t used yet.

So if you booked a return flight and the outbound leg is cancelled, you can get the full cost of the return ticket refunded.

But if travelling is essential, then your airline has to find you an alternative flight. This could even be with another airline.

When am I not entitled to compensation?

The airline doesn’t have to give you a refund if the flight was cancelled due to reasons beyond their control, such as extreme weather.

Disruptions caused by things like extreme weather, airport or air traffic control employee strikes or other ‘extraordinary circumstances’ are not eligible for compensation.

Some airlines may stretch the definition of “extraordinary circumstances” but you can challenge them through the aviation regulator the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA).

Will my insurance cover me if my flight is cancelled?

If you can’t claim compensation directly through the airline, your travel insurance may refund you.

Policies vary so you should check the small print, but a delay of eight to 12 hours will normally mean you qualify for some money from your insurer.

Remember to get written confirmation of your delay from the airport as your insurer will need proof.

If your flight is cancelled entirely, you’re unlikely to be covered by your insurance.

There are six host cities (Miami, Houston, Dallas, Monterrey, Kansas City and Atlanta) where the WBGT could feasibly reach at least 32C (90F) during the afternoon which would be considered as extreme heat stress where the body really struggles to keep itself cool.

To reduce these risks, matches are generally scheduled outside the hottest part of the day, with many kick-offs taking place in the late afternoon or evening. Scotland’s group C game against Brazil in Miami, for example, will have a kick-off time of 18:00 ET (23:00 BST).

Some venues, including stadiums in Houston and Dallas, also have retractable roofs and climate control to moderate conditions.

Summer heatwaves are also a common occurrence in North America and Mexico where temperatures can rise 10C (50F) or more above average, potentially pushing conditions into much more challenging territory for both players and fans.

In New York for example, the location of this year’s World Cup final on 19 July at 15:00 ET (20:00 BST), a typical heatwave could result in air temperatures in the mid-30sC (mid 90F) and WBGT of around 30C (86F) leading to extreme heat stress.