Nasdaq

South Korean chipmaker SK hynix, known for its high-bandwidth memory chips, is preparing to raise roughly $28 billion (€24.5bn) on Wall Street, a sum surpassed only by SpaceX’s record flotation last month.

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It is an extraordinary outcome for a firm that once survived on job cuts and asset sales.

Pricing is due on Thursday, with trading expected to begin on Friday under the ticker SKHY.

SK hynix is issuing 17.79 million new shares in the form of American depositary receipts (ADRs), each representing a tenth of a Seoul-listed share, and cornerstone investors including Baillie Gifford and funds run by Coatue Management have signalled interest in up to $7 billion (€6.1bn) worth of stock.

The target was trimmed from an initial $29.6 billion (€25.9bn) after the shares slipped in recent weeks.

ADRs are certificates traded on a US exchange that stand in for shares held abroad, letting American investors buy into a foreign company without dealing in a foreign currency or market.

Unlike a conventional flotation, this is not SK hynix’s stock market debut. Its primary listing remains on Seoul’s Kospi index, and the Nasdaq offering simply opens a second, dollar-denominated avenue for investors to gain exposure.

The listing arrives with the company already worth more than $1 trillion (€876bn), a threshold also crossed by rivals Samsung Electronics and Micron, after a surge of more than 200% this year.

Proceeds will fund new fabrication plants, chiefly a vast cluster in Yongin, plus its first US packaging facility in Indiana.

The move is partly about valuation. Korean-listed chipmakers have long traded at a discount to American peers, and a Nasdaq listing offers a chance to close that gap.

The AI memory boom — and the risks

The AI build-out has transformed the industry’s economics.

As hyperscalers pour hundreds of billions into data centres, memory prices have exploded, with DRAM up 44% and NAND flash up 53% in a single quarter, according to Citi Research, and manufacturers have already sold most of their 2026 production.

SK hynix reported first-quarter revenue above 50 trillion won (€29bn) and operating margins north of 70%, figures unheard of for a chipmaker, and commands about 60% of the high-bandwidth memory (HBM) market, according to Counterpoint Research.

Yet the timing is delicate.

Memory has always been a brutally cyclical business. The AI-driven rally that transformed SK hynix has begun to wobble as chip stocks sold off sharply across Asia last week, and Samsung lost more than $100 billion (€87.5bn) in market value despite posting a record profit.

Investors are increasingly asking whether the vast sums being spent on AI infrastructure will earn a return, a question that the Bank for International Settlements raised in late June when it warned that the boom could seed the next financial crash.

Built, broken and rebuilt

Those concerns are not new for SK hynix.

SK hynix traces its roots to Gukdo Construction, founded in 1949, which moved into electronics in 1983 as Hyundai Electronics, an arm of the Hyundai empire.

The Asian financial crisis of the late 1990s brought disaster. Under an IMF-backed restructuring of the Korean economy, Hyundai absorbed rival LG’s semiconductor business, creating a giant that promptly buckled under its own debts.

Salvation came in stages.

Renamed Hynix Semiconductor in 2001, a contraction of “high” and “electronics”, the firm cut jobs, shed assets and split from Hyundai. Profits returned, but the violent swings of the DRAM market left it perpetually exposed.

Starved of capital, it was rescued in 2012 by the telecoms conglomerate SK Group, becoming SK hynix. The takeover proved decisive. SK Group poured money into high-bandwidth memory, then a costly and unprofitable technology that few believed in.

Today it has become the scarcest commodity in AI computing. And the firm employs nearly 46,900 people.

Additional sources • AFP

Published on
12/06/2026 – 17:57 GMT+2

The moment that Wall Street had anticipated all year arrived on Friday as SpaceX, the AI and aerospace company controlled by Elon Musk, began trading publicly on the Nasdaq in the largest initial public offering (IPO) in the history of financial markets.

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In a speech before the New York session opened for trading, Musk stated that SpaceX’s goal is to “take the fiction out of science fiction.”

SPCX opened at $150, over 10% above its $135 IPO price, and it was already at more than $160 after the first few minutes of live trading.

The company confirmed on Thursday that it had priced 555.6 million Class A shares at $135 each, valuing the firm at roughly $1.78 trillion (€1.54trn) and targeting a raise of $75 billion (€64.5bn) that instantly eclipsed Saudi Aramco’s $29.4 billion (€25.4bn) listing, which had stood as the global record for almost seven years.

Only around 3% to 4% of SpaceX shares are currently available for public trading.

The company earmarked as much as 30% of its offering for retail investors, including 10% dedicated to European buyers, but the final amount was set at 20%. As for options contracts on SPCX, they are scheduled to begin trading next week.

The IPO has also brought Elon Musk closer to becoming the world’s first trillionaire.

Forbes valued his pre-IPO SpaceX stake, estimated at around 42% of the company, at about $500bn (€435bn). At the IPO valuation, those holdings are worth roughly $690bn (€600bn), adding nearly $190bn (€165bn) to his fortune and pushing his net worth closer to the $1tn (€870bn) milestone.

Along with Musk, thousands of SpaceX employees are benefitting from the IPO and becoming millionaires.

The listing will give millions of savers indirect exposure to SpaceX as the company is expected to qualify for major stock market indexes shortly after its debut, meaning its shares could be automatically purchased by index-tracking funds.

SpaceX is estimated to be fast-tracked into the Nasdaq-100 in less than a month, as opposed to a typical wait of as much as a year.

Nasdaq’s new fast-entry rule, introduced in May, now sees it evaluating newly listed stocks for potential entry ‌by ranking ⁠their market capitalisation on the seventh trading day and assessing whether they would rank within the top 40 index members.

SpaceX is already in the top 10.

Among other changes announced, the rule that requires companies to float a minimum of 10% of their shares was also scrapped.

Analysts estimate that funds tracking the Nasdaq-100 will be required to purchase at least $7bn (€6bn) worth of SpaceX shares around the inclusion date, creating a wave of mechanical demand.

SpaceX has also already become eligible for inclusion in both the Russell US Equity Indexes and the FTSE Global Equity Index Series under the newly announced fast-entry rules from the index provider FTSE Russell.

The S&P 500, however, will not adopt a similar fast-track approach.

S&P Dow Jones Indices confirmed in early June that it would maintain its 12-month seasoning requirement and GAAP profitability test, meaning SpaceX will not join the index before mid-2027.

This is a developing story and will be updated as more information becomes available.

This article does not constitute financial advice, always do your own research and invest according to your specific circumstances.

SpaceX founder Elon Musk announced plans on Wednesday for one of the biggest stock sales ever, by taking a space company public that is currently losing billions of dollars a year.

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A filing shows that SpaceX lost $2.6 billion (€2.24bn) from operations last year on $18.7 billion in revenue, and the losses continued at the start of this year.

The prospectus did not put a dollar figure on the amount Musk hopes to raise, but various reports have estimated it at around $75bn (€64.5bn). An offering of that size would easily surpass the current title holder, Saudi Aramco, the oil giant that went public seven years ago and raised $26bn (€22.4bn).

SpaceX, formally known as Space Exploration Technologies Corp., said the money will help finance projects to put people on the Moon and Mars, as part of its goal to make humans an interplanetary species in the face of existential threats that could wipe out civilisation.

“We do not want humans to have the same fate as dinosaurs,” the filing states.

The prospectus reads, in part, like a Hollywood-style vision of the future, detailing in one section that part of Musk’s compensation will be granted only if he maintains “a permanent human colony on Mars with at least one million inhabitants.”

Short of that, the stock sale alone could make Musk — the founder and a major shareholder of SpaceX — the world’s first trillionaire. Forbes currently estimates his net worth at $839bn (€722bn), roughly equivalent to Poland’s annual GDP.

Losses mount despite strong revenue and Starlink growth

In addition to making reusable rockets to send astronauts into orbit, SpaceX has other businesses, some successful and others struggling, with plenty of question marks.

The document shows that Starlink, the world’s largest satellite communications company, is a major source of cash, generating $4.4bn (€3.8bn) in operating income last year. The business uses 10,000 satellites in low orbit to provide internet service to 10 million people in 150 countries and territories.

Among the struggling businesses are two Musk ventures recently acquired by SpaceX — his social media platform X, formerly Twitter, and his artificial intelligence firm xAI. Those purchases were criticised by some SpaceX investors as bailouts, as both are significant loss-makers.

The prospectus said its AI business lost $6.4bn (€5.5bn) from operations last year.

The original SpaceX business — building rockets and conducting launches — has benefited from major government contracts, raising questions that could come back to affect the company. Given Musk’s close ties to the Trump administration, government ethics lawyers and watchdogs have questioned whether he received preferential treatment in securing taxpayer-funded contracts, and whether that support will continue once Donald Trump leaves office.

SpaceX has won contracts worth $6bn (€5.2bn) from NASA, the Defence Department and other government agencies over the past five years, according to USAspending.gov. The company noted in its filing that one-fifth of its revenue last year came from the federal government.

Musk was the biggest donor to Trump’s presidential campaign and remains a major backer, despite a sometimes rocky relationship following his role in the government cost-cutting effort known as DOGE early last year.

Musk’s pay tied to ambitious targets as he retains firm control

Like many corporate CEOs, Musk’s compensation goes far beyond his annual salary, which was $54,080 (€46,538.5)in 2025 and has remained unchanged since 2019, according to the filing.

The prospectus says stock grants for him will be divided into 15 nearly equal tranches — 67 million shares each — and will vest only as the company reaches preset market capitalisation targets. In addition to the Mars colony milestone, SpaceX’s market value would need to reach $7.5 trillion (€6.45tr) for him to receive the full award.

He would receive additional stock awards if SpaceX succeeds in deploying giant data centres the size of football fields in space.

The document shows Musk will retain significant control over the business.

It states that he and certain other shareholders will receive shares in a special class of stock that gives them 10 votes per share. These shareholders will be able, among other things, to elect a majority of the company’s board of directors.

“This will limit or preclude your ability to influence corporate matters and the election of our directors,” SpaceX said in a warning to prospective investors.

SpaceX will be able to market the offering to investors — in what is known on Wall Street as a “roadshow” — 15 days after making its prospectus public. In this case, that would be 4 June.

On the morning of 29 June 2015, Greeks woke up to find their banks closed.

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ATMs were limited to €60 a day. The Athens Stock Exchange did not open for trading.

Capital controls, the kind associated with crisis-era emerging markets rather than members of a developed-economy currency union, had arrived.

Five years earlier, in April and June 2010, Standard & Poor’s and Moody’s had cut Greek sovereign debt to junk, the first eurozone member to lose investment grade.

By February 2016 the Athex Composite had bottomed at 516.7 points, a fall of more than 90% from its October 2007 high of 5,334.5. The FTSE Athex Banks index, the country’s lenders, had collapsed by 99.6%.

Greek equities had ceased to function as an asset class.

They had become an obituary.

A decade on, the obituary needs rewriting. The Athens Composite Index has returned roughly 146% over the past five years on a total-return basis.

The Nasdaq 100, riding the artificial intelligence supercycle that has dominated global equity narratives, returned 116% over the same window. The S&P 500 delivered only about half of Greece’s gains, while European large-cap equities – tracked by the Euro STOXX 50 – achieved barely one-third.

This is the story of how Europe’s cautionary tale became one of the best turnaround trades of the modern era.

Greek stocks beat Nasdaq 100 over 5 years: Here is why

To understand the rally, start with the lenders. National Bank of Greece, Eurobank, Piraeus Bank and Alpha Bank carried the heaviest load through the crisis decade.

By late 2016 their combined non-performing loan ratio peaked near 47%, the worst in the European Union. For perspective, most other troubled European banking systems peaked at between 5% and 8%.

Greek lenders were not facing a credit problem. They were carrying a depression on their balance sheets.

The clean-up unfolded in two stages.

The Hellenic Asset Protection Scheme, known as Hercules, allowed the banks to securitise and offload roughly €57bn of bad loans through state-backed guarantees on the senior tranches.

The second leg was the slower work of organic profitability: stabilising deposits, restructuring cost bases, restoring net interest margins.

From bailout to bull market: The Athens turnaround

Combined net profits of the four largest Greek banks reached close to €5bn in 2025.

Shareholder payouts followed suit. Piraeus, Eurobank and Alpha Bank distributed around 55% of earnings, while National Bank of Greece pushed its total payout ratio to 86%, supported by aggressive buybacks.

Konstantinos Hatzidakis, then Greece’s minister of economy and finance, captured the moment in the IMF’s Finance & Development journal in June 2025.

“We have cleaned up bank balance sheets and curbed nonperforming loans. This major milestone has enabled lenders to regain their essential role in financing the real economy,” he wrote.

Hatzidakis pointed to rising deposits, stronger capital buffers and what he described as “a tangible vote of confidence” in the system: the successful sale of the Hellenic Financial Stability Fund’s bank stakes to long-term foreign investors.

“The Greek economy,” he added, “has consistently outperformed expectations, often by a significant margin.”

The quiet engine behind Greece’s economic miracle

The fiscal side of the recovery has received far less attention, but it has been equally important.

In a paper published by the IMF last week, economists Andrew Okello, Stoyan Markov and Chenghong Wang described the transformation of Greece’s tax administration as “one of the quiet engines behind Greece’s broader economic recovery”.

They divided the reform process into three overlapping stages.

The first, between 2010 and 2012, focused on stabilising government revenues under Troika supervision. One of the earliest breakthroughs came via VAT digitalisation: only 65% of registered taxpayers filed VAT returns on time in 2010, compared with 96% by 2014.

The second stage, between 2013 and 2017, centred on institution-building. Greece consolidated 288 local tax offices into 119 and established the Independent Authority for Public Revenue under a landmark 2016 law.

By 2017, the authority had become operational with its own budget and independently selected management board. During that period, the tax-to-GDP ratio rose from 25.8% to 27.6%.

The third stage, from 2018 onwards, introduced real-time electronic invoicing, point-of-sale connectivity and digital analytics systems. VAT revenues climbed from 7.1% of GDP in 2010 to around 9.5% in 2025.

Overall, Greece’s tax-to-GDP ratio rose from 20.5% in 2009 to roughly 28% in 2025.

The result has been a dramatic fiscal turnaround.

Greece recorded a primary surplus close to 5% of GDP in both 2024 and 2025, making it one of only a handful of EU countries running a fiscal surplus at all.

Meanwhile, sovereign spreads over German bunds — which once exceeded 30 percentage points during the peak of the crisis — have returned to levels last seen before the 2008 financial crisis.

According to the IMF’s March 2026 Article IV statement, Greece’s public debt-to-GDP ratio fell by around 10 percentage points in 2025 alone, reaching roughly 145%, down from a peak near 210% in 2020.

The IMF estimates the cumulative decline at roughly 65 percentage points from the pandemic-era peak.

Credit-rating agencies eventually followed. Scope Ratings restored Greece to investment grade in August 2023, followed by DBRS later that year, S&P in October 2023 and Fitch in December 2023.

Moody’s — the final holdout among the major agencies — upgraded Greece to Baa3 in March 2025 and reaffirmed the rating in April 2026.

For the first time in more than a decade, every major ratings agency now classifies Greek sovereign debt as investment grade.

Cheap when nobody wanted to look

The third pillar of the rally was valuation.

Greek equities entered the recovery period trading at discounts that became increasingly difficult to justify once balance sheets stabilised.

Even after the surge, Eurobank Equities estimates Greek banks are trading at roughly 9 times expected 2026 earnings and 1.4 times tangible book value — still more than 20% below European peers.

UBS estimates the sector’s average 2027 price-to-earnings ratio – a key measure of how cheaply or expensively stocks trade relative to expected profits – at 8.4x, compared with 9.5x for European banks overall. For comparison, US equities currently trade at more than 20 times forward 12-month earnings.

Over the past five years, shares of National Bank of Greece and Piraeus Bank have each surged by roughly 500%. Yet despite the extraordinary rally, both lenders still trade at single-digit earnings multiples.

The most structural financial change arrived last.

On 24 November 2025, Euronext completed its acquisition of the Athens Stock Exchange after roughly 74% shareholder acceptance of the all-share offer.

Greek stocks now sits inside Europe’s largest equity listing venue, alongside more than 1,800 listed companies.

The mechanical consequence is a broader pool of natural buyers. International index funds tracking pan-European benchmarks now hold Greek names automatically.

MSCI – the world’s largest index provider – is reviewing Greece for a potential upgrade to Developed Market status, effective September 2026 if approved, which would shift the country out of the small bucket of emerging-market money still chasing it and into the much larger pool of developed-market index allocations.

JP Morgan has forecast a 16% return for the MSCI Greece index in 2026.

Inside the sector, the maturing is showing up in mergers and acquisitions. In May 2026 Eurobank agreed to acquire 80% of Eurolife FFH Life Insurance for around €813m, a deal expected to lift group fee income by roughly 12%.

National Bank of Greece signed a Memorandum of Understanding with Allianz on a 30% stake in Allianz Hellas, with the partnership projected to add 4% to earnings per share.

The Optima offer for Euroxx underscores the same dynamic.

Greek financials are no longer just rebuilding. They are consolidating.

A decade later, Greece looks different

None of this means Greece is insulated from external shocks.

The IMF warned in March 2026 that the outlook remains “clouded by the conflict in the Middle East”. Tourism still accounts for roughly 21% of Greek GDP, leaving the economy vulnerable to geopolitical disruptions.

The Recovery and Resilience Facility — which has underpinned much of the country’s recent investment boom — is also due to wind down in August 2026.

Inflation remains elevated, running at 3.1% year-on-year in February 2026.

Hatzidakis himself acknowledged the remaining weaknesses in his June 2025 essay: investment still trails the EU average, productivity remains below European peers, and female labour-force participation is still among the lowest in the bloc.

Piraeus chief executive Christos Megalou told analysts during the bank’s first-quarter earnings call that a prolonged period of elevated energy prices could slow Greek GDP growth to between 1.5% and 1.6%, albeit still above the EU average.

Still, Greece stands as one of the clearest examples in modern financial history of how a country pushed to the edge of sovereign default managed to engineer a broad-based recovery through fiscal repair, banking-sector restructuring and institutional reform.

Ten years ago, Greek debt was rated junk, banks were shut and the stock market had lost more than 90% of its value.

Today, the sovereign carries investment-grade ratings across the board and the Athens Composite Index has achieved something few thought possible five years ago: it has outperformed the Nasdaq 100.

Whether the next five years will deliver the same kind of returns remains uncertain.

But for the first time in a generation, Greece is no longer a symbol of financial collapse. It is increasingly becoming a case study in recovery.