compares

EXPLAINER

Paris and other European cities are experiencing temperatures above 40C (104F), reaching levels normally seen across the Middle East.

A blistering heatwave has gripped much of Europe, prompting the highest-level red alerts in parts of the United Kingdom, France, Spain and Italy.

Authorities have warned of health risks, wildfires and travel disruptions as extreme temperatures persist.

With temperatures approaching record highs, officials have taken emergency measures, including a localised alcohol ban in parts of France under red alert, nationwide heat warnings in Germany and the cancellation of a World Cup fan zone screening in Madrid, where temperatures hit 39C (102F).

Why is it so hot in Europe?

A persistent area of high pressure, known as a heat dome, has trapped hot air over Western Europe, bringing clear skies, weak winds and prolonged sunshine. Hot air moving north from North Africa has added to the extreme temperatures.

Unusually warm seas around the UK, Ireland, France and the western Mediterranean have also helped keep coastal areas hot, especially at night. Coastal waters around Spain have reached record warm levels, according to Spain’s port authority.

In the worst-affected areas – western France, England and Wales – daily average temperatures have soared more than 12C above the 1991-2020 baseline, according to Copernicus data.

Scientists say the early-season heatwave is part of a broader warming trend. Europe is the world’s fastest-warming continent, with temperatures rising by approximately 0.56C per decade since the mid-1990s, more than double the global average.

Climate change is making heatwaves more frequent, more intense and likely to occur earlier and later in the year.

How hot are European cities today?

To contextualise the temperatures Europe is dealing with, Al Jazeera looked at the maximum temperatures in five European capitals on June 24 and compared them with cities across the Middle East, North Africa and Asia, where high temperatures are more typically experienced.

Europe is particularly vulnerable – much of its housing and infrastructure was not built for prolonged extreme heat, and only about 20 percent of European homes have air conditioning.

The graphic below shows how European cities’ maximum temperatures today compare with some other cities around the world:

How is temperature measured?

The temperature you see on the news or the weather app on your phone relies on a network of weather stations positioned around the globe.

To ensure accurate readings, weather stations typically use specialist platinum resistance thermometers placed inside shaded instruments known as a Stevenson screen.

Measurements are taken at a standard height of 1.25-2 metres (4-6.5 feet) above the ground. This provides a reading that reflects the air temperature that people actually feel.

There are two well-known scales used to measure temperature: Celsius and Fahrenheit.

Only a few countries, including the United States, use Fahrenheit as their official scale. Most of the world uses the Celsius scale, named after Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius, who invented the 0-100 degree freezing and boiling point scale, although originally inverted, in 1742.

Why does the temperature feel hotter than the forecast says?

Air temperature alone often doesn’t match how hot it feels to your body. That is why forecasts report a “feels like” temperature, which adjusts air temperature based on factors like humidity, wind speed and sun exposure.

Humidity

Humidity measures how much water vapour is in the air. This moisture slows the evaporation of sweat, so your body can’t cool itself as effectively.

Wind speed

In hot weather, a light breeze can help evaporate sweat, making it feel cooler.

Sun exposure

Even if the thermometer reads the same, direct sunlight adds extra warmth, which is why shaded areas feel cooler.

Pep Guardiola won 17 trophies in his 10-year stay at Man City, but how does his record stand up in English football?

Pep Guardiola is leaving Manchester City after changing the face of English football over the last 10 years.

But how do his achievements at City compare with those of other great managers to have worked in England down the years, such as Alex Ferguson, Bob Paisley and Brian Clough?

The numbers and records nearly speak for themselves.

Pep and the Premier League

Guardiola always valued the domestic league higher than any other competition and he established an era of record-breaking dominance, leading City to six titles in his 10 seasons (60 percent) — including the unprecedented feat of four in a row (2021-24). Those six titles came in a seven-year span. He finished outside the top two on just two occasions.

As an overall percentage, only Paisley (66.67 percent) has a better title-winning record of modern-day managers. In his nine years at Liverpool (1974-83), he won the English league six times and was only outside the top two once.

Ferguson won the league title 13 times in 26 full seasons at United (1986-2013) but started out at a lower base, with the club being near the bottom of the standings and without a championship in 19 years when he took over. From the year of Ferguson’s first league crown (1993) to when he retired, United’s title-winning percentage was 61.9 percent – slightly higher than Guardiola’s but lower than Paisley’s.

Pep and the Champions League

For a club of City’s Abu Dhabi-fuelled resources, its record in the Champions League under Guardiola has been underwhelming — and he acknowledges that.

One title (2023), one more final (losing to Chelsea in 2021) and just one other semifinal appearance (2022) is a disappointing return for a team widely regarded as one of the best in Europe for most of his reign. Guardiola can, of course, point to two more Champions League titles in his four-year stint at Barcelona.

Ferguson won the Champions League twice with United, though even that was also regarded as a below-par return considering the team’s domestic dominance.

Of British managers, Clough and Paisley hold the most enviable records. Clough won the European Cup with Nottingham Forest in back-to-back years (1979 and 1980) — a remarkable feat at a provincial club — while Paisley won the competition three times (1977, 1978 and 1981) in five years.

Pep’s total trophy trail

Guardiola has won 17 major trophies in his decade at City, putting him only behind Ferguson in English football’s all-time list.

Ferguson captured 28 trophies, but had 16 years longer in the job than Guardiola.

Next comes Paisley, with 14 major trophies, followed by former Arsenal manager Arsene Wenger (10, of which a record seven were FA Cups), Clough (nine, across his spells at Derby and Forest) and former Man United manager Matt Busby (eight).

Pep’s points totals

Under Guardiola, City racked up two of the top three points totals in English top-flight history — 100 in the 2017-18 season (Guardiola’s second in charge) and 98 in the 2018-19 season. In that seven-season span from 2018-2024, City set new standards in consistent excellence by collecting more than 90 points in four league campaigns — helped by having a top-class rival in Liverpool pushing it all the way.

That Liverpool team under Jurgen Klopp picked up 99 points in 2019-20, when breaking up City’s run of titles, and 97 points in 2018-19 when taking City to the final game of the season.

In the era when it was two points for a win (before 1981), Liverpool held the record for most points in a season with 68 in 1978-79. That equates to 98 points if there had been three points for a win, but Liverpool played 42 games instead of the current 38-game campaign.

Also notable was Chelsea’s haul of 95 points in 2004-05, the first season of Jose Mourinho’s first spell there. That was a record at the time.

Pep’s records – and a first

Guardiola has never been shy to highlight the records he has set at City – and there have been many.

The only team in the nearly 140-year history of English football to win four top-flight league titles in a row. The first team to win 100 points in a top-flight season (2017-18). The most goals – 106 – scored in a single Premier League campaign (also 2017-18). The first team to win the domestic treble of the league, FA Cup and League Cup in the same season (2018-19).

Guardiola also emulated Ferguson in both winning the Premier League-FA Cup-Champions League treble (United in 1999, City in 2023) and wrapping up a Premier League title with five games still to play (United in 2001, City in 2018) — a record until it was broken by Liverpool in 2020 (seven games to play).

Something Guardiola never managed, however, was Wenger’s greatest feat of going an entire league season unbeaten (with Arsenal in 2004).