Cambodia

The leaders of Thailand and Cambodia have expanded a ceasefire deal in the presence of US President Donald Trump, who is in Malaysia for the ASEAN summit. In July, the president helped bring an end to their five-day border conflict.

Thailand and Cambodia sign an enhanced ceasefire agreement following a deadly five-day conflict along their border in July.

Thailand and Cambodia have signed an expanded ceasefire agreement in the presence of United States President Donald Trump in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, building on a deal that ended deadly border fighting in July.

Cambodian Prime Minister Hun Manet and Thai Prime Minister Anutin Charnvirakul signed the agreement on Sunday on the sidelines of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) summit in Kuala Lumpur, shortly after Trump’s arrival.

​​”We did something that a lot of people said couldn’t be done,” said Trump, who co-signed the agreement along with summit host Malaysian Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim, as he made his first trip to Asia since returning to the White House.

Thailand’s Anutin said the agreement creates “the building blocks for a lasting peace”, while the Cambodian premier Hun called it a “historic day”.

Tariffs wielded as threat

The agreement builds on a truce reached three months ago when Trump used the threat of higher tariffs against both countries to persuade them to end five days of fighting that resulted in dozens of deaths and the displacement of hundreds of thousands.

The first phase of the agreement involves Thailand releasing 18 Cambodian soldiers, and the removal of heavy weapons from the border region, with Malaysian troops to be deployed to ensure fighting does not restart.

Territory along the 800km (500-mile) frontier between Thailand and Cambodia has been disputed for decades.

Following the signing of the ceasefire agreement on Sunday, Trump inked separate economic deals with Cambodia and Thailand, involving an agreement on reciprocal trade with Phnom Penh and a deal on critical minerals with Bangkok.

Malaysia’s Anwar, who was also present at the signing, praised the agreement during his opening remarks at the summit, saying “it reminds us that reconciliation is not concession, but an act of courage.”

Thais cautious

Reporting from Sa Kaeo, Thailand, Al Jazeera’s Tony Cheng said the agreement signed on Sunday essentially reinforced “agreements that have already been made”.

Malaysian troops had been supposed to deploy under the initial peace agreement signed in July, but had not yet arrived, he said.

He said that while Thais welcomed “any kind of move towards peace”, they were viewing the agreement as “the beginning of the end” to the conflict, rather than hailing it as having resolved the dispute in itself.

“The devil is going to be in the details of this agreement,” he said.

He said the Thai military had been working to clear some disputed border areas, at the same time as some villages had been building new bomb shelters in recent weeks.

“So people here are still concerned this could go either way,” he said.

Ou Virak, president of Phnom Penh’s Future Forum think tank, told The Associated Press news agency that Trump wielding the threat of tariffs had been a significant factor in bringing the fighting to a halt.

“That’s probably the main reason, if not the only reason, but definitely the main reason why the two sides agreed immediately to the ceasefire.”

Now, he said, “there’s a ceremony for Trump to be in front of cameras” so he can be “seen as the champion that brings an end to wars and conflicts”, giving him “more ammunition for his bid for [the] Nobel Peace Prize”.

Nearly two dozen world leaders are descending in the Malaysian capital of Kuala Lumpur for a three-day summit of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) from Sunday to Tuesday, and multiple other meetings on the sidelines.

This will be the 47th summit of the ASEAN.

Here’s what you need to know:

What is ASEAN, and who’s attending the summit?

ASEAN is made up of 10 members – Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam. Together, they have a population of 678 million people and a gross domestic product of $3.9 trillion, according to the Office of the United States Trade Representative.

This year, ASEAN will induct its 11th member, East Timor. The country gained independence from Indonesia in 2002 and is home to 1.4 million people.

The summit will bring together leaders from every country in the bloc except for Myanmar’s acting president, Senior General Min Aung Hlaing.

The ASEAN summit is accompanied annually by the East Asia Summit, a gathering of leaders of the ASEAN nations, the US, China, India, Russia, Japan, South Korea, Australia and New Zealand.

This year, US President Donald Trump, Chinese Premier Li Qiang, Australian Prime Minister Anthony Albanese, newly appointed Japanese Prime Minister Sanae Takaichi, South Korean President Lee Jae Myung and New Zealand Prime Minister Christopher Luxon will be attending.

Russian Deputy Prime Minister Alexander Novak will represent Moscow while Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi will take part virtually.

Beyond the leaders of ASEAN and the East Asia Summit nations, Brazilian President Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva, Canadian Prime Minister Mark Carney and South African President Cyril Ramaphosa will be in Kuala Lumpur too.

The heads of the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the International Labour Organization and the International Federation of Association Football, better known as FIFA, will also attend some sessions, according to Bernama, Malaysia’s state news agency.

What events will take place during the summit?

Apart from the ASEAN summit and the East Asia Summit, ASEAN will also hold separate conclaves with leaders of key powers in Kuala Lumpur.

There’s also a peace deal to be signed on Sunday when Cambodia and Thailand ink a pact to end a deadly border dispute. The ceremony will be presided over by Trump and Malaysian Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim, according to Bernama.

The long-running border conflict rekindled in July when dozens of people were killed and hundreds of thousands displaced along the border. A ceasefire was reached after five days with the help of Malaysia, China and the US.

Despite the high-profile nature of the event, some critics have questioned whether the deal will be more of a photo-op for Trump than a lasting resolution. Ceasefire violations have continued since July while the original issue around border demarcation has also not been resolved, according to Mu Sochua, a former Cambodian opposition leader and president of the Khmer Movement for Democracy.

She told Al Jazeera the threat of tariffs from Trump helped bring Thailand and Cambodia to the negotiating table in a move that was effective in the short term but also controversial. “Critics in both countries say it amounted to economic blackmail – trading peace for trade benefits rather than addressing justice, sovereignty or local needs,” she said.

What will be discussed at the summit? 

The ASEAN summit will discuss pressing issues like US tariffs and access to rare earth minerals, which are essential to high-tech manufacturing and whose production is dominated by China.

Trump launched his “Liberation Day Tariffs” in April against most US trading partners in a bid to lower the US trade deficit. After much negotiation, US tariffs for most ASEAN countries range from 10 to 20 percent while Brunei’s tariff rate is 25 percent. Tariffs for Laos and Myanmar are both 40 percent.

In response to Trump’s tariffs, China has tightened export restrictions on rare earths, a move that has been felt around the world.

Marco Foster, ASEAN director at the professional services firm Dezan Shira & Associates, told Al Jazeera that most attendees will be vying for a chance to speak to Trump about tariffs. “Pretty much everyone is going to be going after him or trying to get in the room with him or his people to talk about their deal,” he said. “Everyone will want to have a sideline meeting with Trump.”

Attendees are also expected to discuss pressing issues like Myanmar’s civil war and the proliferation of scam centres in Southeast Asia, which have earned criminal networks tens of billions of dollars.

Why is Myanmar skipping the summit? 

Myanmar’s acting president will not attend the ASEAN summit, and Myanmar will not take the helm from Malaysia as next year’s ASEAN chair because it has been embroiled in a civil war since 2021. Instead, the role will fall to the Philippines.

In 2021, ASEAN issued a Five-Point Consensus, calling for an immediate ceasefire in Myanmar and humanitarian assistance while creating a special ASEAN envoy to help mediate the conflict. Four years later, critics said it has had little impact on the crisis.

Charles Santiago, co-chairman of ASEAN Parliamentarians for Human Rights, told Al Jazeera that he expected Myanmar and the fallout from the civil war to be discussed at the summit.

“Myanmar has become a destabilising factor, both [in terms of] security and social cohesion in the other parts of Southeast Asia,” he said. The civil war has facilitated the spread of the flow of drugs and weapons while creating a refugee crisis, he added.

Still, Santiago said he did not expect much to come from the ASEAN summit. “This will be a major photo opportunity for everybody,” he said, but “nothing much will happen” in terms of policy.

What are ASEAN’s limitations?

ASEAN has sometimes been criticised for lacking an enforcement mechanism to force members to abide by its rulings. This makes it different from other regional blocs like the European Union, whose members must abide by EU laws and rulings.

It’s a criticism that has been heard recently around issues like Myanmar as well as the Cambodian-Thai border conflict.

Foster said this feature is a legacy of ASEAN’s unique history. The organisation was founded in 1967 after a major wave of decolonisation around the world. Its structure reflects the norms of the era, he said.

“Because of the narrative that ASEAN was born out of independence, it will never lead to an ASEAN that will limit [member states’] independence by accepting rules from a body that is above the state,” Foster said. “The nation state will always be the number one in ASEAN.”

South Korea has banned citizens from going to parts of Cambodia amid growing concerns over the country’s scam industry.

Dozens of South Korean nationals who had been detained in Cambodia for alleged involvement in cyberscam operations have been returned home and placed under arrest, according to South Korean authorities.

Officers arrested the individuals on board a chartered flight sent to collect them from Cambodia, a South Korean police official told the AFP news agency.

“A total of 64 nationals just arrived at the Incheon international airport on a chartered flight,” the official said on Saturday, adding that all of the individuals have been taken into custody as criminal suspects.

South Korea sent a team to Cambodia earlier this week to investigate dozens of its nationals who were kidnapped into the Southeast Asian nation’s online scam industry.

South Korean National Security Adviser Wi Sung-lac previously said the detained individuals included both “voluntary and involuntary participants” in scam operations.

On Friday, Cambodian Ministry of Interior spokesman Touch Sokhak said the repatriation agreement with South Korea was the “result of good cooperation in suppression of scams between the two countries”.

Online scam operations have proliferated in Cambodia since the COVID-19 pandemic, when the global shutdown saw many Chinese-owned casinos and hotels in the country pivot to illicit operations.

Operating from industrial-scale scam centres, tens of thousands of workers perpetrate online romance scams known as “pig-butchering”, often targeting people in the West in a vastly lucrative industry responsible for the theft of tens of billions of dollars each year.

Pig-butchering – a euphemism for fattening up a victim before they are slaughtered – often involves fraudulent cryptocurrency investment schemes that build trust over time before funds are stolen.

Parallel industries have blossomed in Laos, the Philippines and war-ravaged Myanmar, where accounts of imprisonment and abuse in scam centres are the most severe.

An estimated 200,000 people are working in dozens of large-scale scam operations across Cambodia, with many scam compounds owned by or linked to the country’s wealthy and politically connected. About 1,000 South Korean nationals are believed to be among that figure.

On Tuesday, the United States and United Kingdom announced sweeping sanctions against a Cambodia-based multinational crime network, identified as the Prince Group, for running a chain of “scam centres” across the region.

UK authorities seized 19 London properties worth more than 100 million pounds ($134m) linked to the Prince Group, which markets itself as a legitimate real estate, financial services and consumer businesses firm.

Prosecutors said that at one point, Prince Group’s chair, Chinese-Cambodian tycoon Chen Zhi, bragged that scam operations were pulling in $30m a day.

Chen – who has served as an adviser to Cambodian Prime Minister Hun Manet and his father, long-ruling former Prime Minister Hun Sen – is also wanted on charges of wire fraud and money laundering, according to the UK and US.

Still at large, he faces up to 40 years in prison if convicted.

The move by the UK and US against the Prince Group came as South Korea announced a ban on travel to parts of Cambodia on Wednesday amid growing concerns over its citizens entering the scam industry.

South Korean police have said they will also conduct a joint investigation into the recent death of a college student in Cambodia who was reportedly kidnapped and tortured by a crime ring.

The South Korean student was found dead in a pick-up truck on August 8 in Cambodia’s southern Kampot province, with an autopsy revealing he “died as a result of severe torture, with multiple bruises and injuries across his body”.

Oct. 14 (UPI) — Britain and the United States announced Tuesday that they have together sanctioned a transnational scam organization operating out of Cambodia.

The U.S. Department of Treasury Office of Foreign Assets Control announced it has imposed sweeping sanctions on 146 targets within the Prince Group transnational criminal organization, a Cambodia-based network led by Cambodian national Chen Zhi that operates a global criminal empire through online investment scams.

It also announced that the Financial Crimes Enforcement Network has finalized a rule under the USA Patriot Act to sever the Cambodia-based financial services conglomerate Huione Group from the U.S. financial system. “For years, Huione Group has laundered proceeds of virtual currency scams and heists on behalf of malicious cyber actors,” the press release said.

Covered financial institutions are now banned from opening or maintaining accounts for Huione Group, the Treasury Department said.

“The rapid rise of transnational fraud has cost American citizens billions of dollars, with life savings wiped out in minutes,” said Secretary of Treasury Scott Bessent in a statement. “Treasury is taking action to protect Americans by cracking down on foreign scammers. Working in close coordination with federal law enforcement and international partners like the United Kingdom, Treasury will continue to lead efforts to safeguard Americans from predatory criminals.”

In the U.K., a $16 million mansion owned by the Prince Group has been frozen by the government. Chen Zhi and his network have invested in the London property market, including the mansion, a $133 million office building and 17 apartments in the city. The freeze blocks them from profiting from these buildings.

The organization’s scam centers in Cambodia, Myanmar and other parts of Southeast Asia use fake job ads to lure foreign nationals to compounds or abandoned casinos where they are forced to carry out online fraud or face torture, the British press release said.

The scams often involve building online relationships to convince targets to invest increasingly large sums of money into fraudulent cryptocurrency schemes.

“These sanctions prove our determination to stop those who profit from this activity, hold offenders accountable, and keep dirty money out of the U.K.,” said Fraud Minister David Hanson in a statement. “Through our new, expanded fraud strategy and the upcoming Global Fraud Summit, we will go even further to disrupt corrupt networks and protect the public from shameless criminals.”

South Korea has faced a surge of kidnappings of its citizens in Cambodia. As of August, at least 330 cases were reported, according to data submitted to the National Assembly.

In June, Amnesty International said the Cambodian government has been “deliberately ignoring” human rights abuses including slavery, human trafficking, child labor and torture by gangs. It estimated that there were at least 53 scamming compounds in Cambodia.

In September, the Treasury Department sanctioned scam centers across Southeast Asia that the agency said stole $10 billion in 2024 from Americans via forced labor and violence.

SEOUL, Oct. 14 (UPI) — The South Korean government will send a joint response team to Cambodia to oversee the repatriation of citizens being held in the country after a surge in kidnappings, Seoul’s presidential office said Tuesday, following the highly publicized torture and murder of a 22-year-old who was lured by a scam job order.

The team, led by Second Vice Foreign Minister Kim Ji-na, will depart Wednesday, presidential spokesman Kim Nam-joon told reporters. Members of the National Police Agency and the National Intelligence Service will participate in the mission.

“The Ministry will make every possible diplomatic effort to encourage Cambodian cooperation and, in consultation with relevant ministries and agencies, strengthen the embassy’s response capabilities, including increasing the number of police officers stationed at the Cambodian embassy,” Kim said.

“The government will also consider upgrading travel alerts for key crime areas in Cambodia to prevent further damage,” he added.

The move comes after South Korean President Lee Jae Myung on Tuesday called for government ministries to use “all available resources” to help South Koreans trapped in Cambodia return home.

“Relevant ministries should consult with the Cambodian government and expedite the establishment of a regular cooperation system between law enforcement authorities,” Lee said at a Cabinet meeting, according to his office.

According to data from lawmaker Na Kyung-won, the number of kidnappings of South Koreans in Cambodia soared to 220 in 2024 and reached 330 through August of this year. In previous years, the average was between 10 and 20.

Most of the cases are linked to transnational crime gangs running large-scale voice phishing rings and illegal gambling operations. Victims are lured with fake job offers and then held against their will and forced to participate in criminal activities.

In one recent case that sparked public outrage, a Korean university student was found dead near Bokor Mountain in Kampot Province after being detained and tortured. Three Chinese nationals were indicted on murder and fraud charges by Cambodian prosecutors, state-run news agency Agence Khmer Press reported on Friday.

The rash of crime reports prompted Seoul’s Foreign Minister Cho Hyun to summon Cambodia’s ambassador on Friday. The Foreign Ministry also raised its travel alert for the capital city of Phnom Penh and certain regions connected to the employment scams and detentions.

Seoul’s National Police Agency said Sunday that it planned to launch a “Korean Desk” in Cambodia to handle cases involving Korean nationals.

Lawmakers with South Korea’s opposition People Power Party on Tuesday criticized the government’s response to the rising number of crimes in Cambodia.

“Crimes targeting Koreans in Cambodia are not a new phenomenon, but the government has been inactive for some time and is only now taking action,” Rep. Choi Bo-yoon said in a statement. “Protecting the lives and safety of our citizens is the most important responsibility of any nation, but the Lee Jae Myung administration is increasingly putting the entire nation at risk.”

Choi called for a “full-scale, national effort” that includes beefing up local investigative cooperation and filling diplomatic positions, including the vacant ambassador post in Cambodia.

The ruling Democratic Party, meanwhile, blamed the previous administration of President Yoon Suk Yeol for failing to address the surge in crimes, which began while he was in office.

The DP’s Policy Committee Chairperson Han Jeoung-ae said that Yoon increased overseas development assistance to Cambodia while neglecting the safety of Korean citizens in the country.

“It has been revealed that the government reduced its international crime response personnel and ignored requests for more police officers,” Han said at a party meeting Tuesday. “Meanwhile, the number of reported detentions in Cambodia increased tenfold from 21 in 2023 to 221 in 2024.”

Tensions over border disputes had sharply escalated in July during a five-day conflict between the neighbouring countries.

Thailand’s new prime minister has said his government will propose a referendum to address an ongoing dispute with its neighbour, Cambodia, over a demarcation agreement.

Prime Minister Anutin Charnvirakul told reporters on Monday that “in order to avoid further conflict”, the government will push for a vote on whether Thailand should revoke the existing memorandum of understanding on border issues with Cambodia.

Thailand and Cambodia have long argued over undemarcated points along their 817km (508-mile) land border, but tensions sharply escalated in July during a five-day conflict. The fighting ended after a ceasefire was brokered by Malaysia on July 28.

In the worst fighting between the two countries in a decade, at least 48 people were killed and hundreds of thousands were temporarily displaced.

But for years, the two countries have relied on an agreement, signed in 2000, which sets out the framework for joint survey and demarcation of the land boundary.

In another agreement in 2001, it provided a framework for cooperation and potential resource sharing in maritime areas claimed by both countries.

However, in Thailand, the agreements have come under public scrutiny over the past decade, especially following the latest clashes.

According to Charnvirakul, the new referendum would provide a clear mandate on the matter of the agreements.

Panitan Wattanayagorn, a political scientist at Bangkok’s Chulalongkorn University, cautioned against the revocation of the agreements as solving the issue.

“Their revocation may not be a direct solution to the conflict between Thailand and Cambodia, because it could create a vacuum,” he told the Reuters news agency.

“The government must make clear what will replace them, and this has to be agreed by Cambodia as well,” he said.

At the same time, Charnvirakul also pledged in his inaugural speech in Parliament to address the country’s economy and push for a new and more democratic constitution as he faces a self-imposed deadline to call for elections in four months.

Cambodia is one of the key hubs for gambling operations in Southeast Asia. Online and offline gambling have expanded to neighboring countries, contributing to the proliferation of transnational crimes such as human trafficking, online scams, and labor exploitation. Women are the most vulnerable group to exploitation and violence. According to the International Organisation for Migration (IOM), there are at least 100,000 victims of human trafficking working in Cambodia (UNODC, 2023). High poverty rates and limited job opportunities in the country increase people’s vulnerability to becoming trapped in these crimes. Many victims are offered well-paid jobs, but in reality, they are often forced to work, sexually exploited, and subjected to abuse.

Gender inequality and patriarchal structures in Southeast Asia exacerbate women’s vulnerability to human trafficking, sexual violence, and economic subordination. The Indonesian Embassy in Phnom Penh recorded 1,761 Indonesian citizens who were victims of online scams in Cambodia, with the majority of them identified as women (Sekarwati, 2024). This situation indicates that transnational crimes based on illegal gambling not only threaten a country’s economic stability and national security but also create humanitarian crises and strengthen gender inequality in the region.

Conceptual Framework

 Feminism does not interpret gender in a biological context but rather as a social construct that creates a hierarchy between masculinity—associated with strength and rationality—and femininity, which is often considered inferior. This hierarchy produces inequality between women and men (Baylis et al., 2014). Feminism also emphasizes the importance of integrating women’s experiences and voices into global political analysis (Enloe, 2014). This perspective is emancipatory, as it explains the subordination of women in marginalized positions within the patriarchal international system. Therefore, feminism can be used to analyze state policies, particularly in the areas of security and transnational crime, which have traditionally focused on state interests and control over individuals, without considering the impact on women as the main victims.

Legalization of Gambling and Reproduction of Patriarchy by the Cambodian Government

Besides being the largest gambling center in Southeast Asia, Sihanoukville is a thriving hub for fraud and human trafficking operations. In 2020, there were 193 casinos in the city, indicating tremendous growth for gambling in Cambodia (Sok, 2023). The Cambodian government is taking advantage of gambling bans in neighboring countries such as Thailand and China by legalizing casino operations in areas such as Sihanoukville. This allows foreigners who cannot gamble in their home countries to play in Cambodia. This also attracted foreign investors from China to open a gambling industry in Cambodia since the Chinese government has strict restrictions on the gambling industry. In addition, Cambodia facilitates the development of gambling by providing various facilities to Chinese syndicates, such as tax exemptions, as the government considers the gambling industry an important source of revenue. In 2019, this sector contributed US$85 million to the country. Therefore, the Cambodian government considers that the gambling industry has a corresponding effect on other sectors, such as the economy, tourism, and services (Luo, 2023).

By legalizing the gambling industry, the Cambodian government is prioritizing economic interest over human security. In this context, economic gains take precedence over women’s security and rights. From a feminist perspective, this policy reflects a patriarchal structure in which women are positioned as objects to be controlled for economic purposes. Their bodies and labor are exploited as tools to generate profit, without adequate protection or recognition of their rights. As mentioned before, the gambling industry is closely linked to the economic, tourism, and service sectors, where women are the most vulnerable group, often exploited as sex workers and servants for foreign gamblers in Cambodia. The government’s policies uphold gender inequality and reinforce a patriarchal system that subordinates women. Women are physically and sexually exploited to satisfy men’s interest, while the state, through the legalization of gambling, legitimizes this objectification. As a result, certain men and elites benefit, while social justice and gender equality are neglected.

The state plays a role as an institution that maintains patriarchy through gender-discriminatory laws, policies, and political practices (Walby, 1990). The Cambodian government fails to provide job opportunities and develop a strong economic sector for its citizens; hence, the gambling industry is considered one of the most profitable sectors. As a result, women in the region are easily trapped in these crime syndicates due to limited employment opportunities and poverty.

Exploitation and Objectification in the Gambling Industry in Cambodia

            The prevalence of gambling and other transnational crimes in Cambodia makes the country both a transit point and destination for victims of human trafficking in Southeast Asia (De Leon, 2024). Trafficked women are often subjected to gender-based violence, including being forced into inappropriate work, overworked with inadequate wages, and assigned tasks that threaten their safety and security. Women are particularly vulnerable to being manipulated into working as ‘prostitutes.’ There is even a form of unconscious ‘voluntary’ prostitution, in which prostitution is perceived as a means of earning a living. From an abolitionist feminist perspective, prostitution violates human rights, and women involved in this activity are considered victims of human trafficking. According to Kathleen Barry, women who believe they are voluntarily engaged in prostitution are, in fact, victims of manipulations by crime syndicates, which create a false consciousness as a survival strategy (Lobasz, 2009).

            Furthermore, online gambling advertisements on illegal websites often display images of beautiful women in sexy and seductive clothing. In this context, women are objectified to influence the public to visit these online gambling sites, reflecting the gender bias that places women in a subordinate position to men (Ikhsani, 2023). In the development of online gambling, women’s bodies are exploited for the economic benefit of certain elites, often men. The state overlooks this exploitation as long as it does not threaten national security as a whole. Women’s voices are rarely heard in discussions about gambling; they are often treated merely as statistics rather than as subjects who experience structural violence rooted in the patriarchal system and reinforced by socially constructed stereotypes.

The Impact of Gambling Expansion in Cambodia for Indonesia

            From Indonesia’s perspective, the impact of online gambling expansion in Cambodia is significant. According to the Indonesian Ministry of Immigration and Corrections (2024), between 2020 and 2023, a total of 1,233 Indonesian citizens fell victim to human trafficking in Cambodia. This situation is exacerbated by limited employment opportunities in Indonesia, which drives citizens to seek work abroad without realizing the potential risk of exploitation. Moreover, the Indonesian government estimates that more than 3 million Indonesian citizens are involved in online gambling activities that cost the country around USD 20 billion (UNODC, 2024). The high poverty rate in Indonesia encourages many of its citizens to play online gambling to find an easy way to earn money. This widespread practice has a negative impact on women, especially housewives, who are vulnerable to domestic violence due to a gambling-addicted partner. This addiction triggers financial conflicts as perpetrators divert funds for household needs to gambling. In many cases, the perpetrator forces his spouse to commit crimes such as stealing or even ‘exploiting’ his wife to pay all his gambling debts. According to the Central Statistics Agency of Indonesia (BPS), in 2024 there were 2,889 divorce cases caused by gambling (Revo M, 2025).

            Furthermore, women face the double burden of earning a living to meet household needs while simultaneously taking care of the home. In some cases, women endure domestic violence from their partners because they feel powerless to report it. They also face negative stigma from their social environment as a result of their partner’s involvement in online gambling. This reflects a social system in Indonesia that tends to blame the victim rather than the perpetrator, labeling women as being incompetent in managing the household, poor at handling finances, or even failing to take care of their husbands (Kamalludin, 2024).

State Security vs. Human Security

            In 2020, the Cambodian government enacted the Law on the Management of Commercial Gambling, which provides for the licensing and regulation of commercial gambling. However, the government had already officially banned all forms of online gambling in 2019. This policy was not solely aimed at protecting the interests of its citizens but rather at maintaining diplomatic relations with China. China has been exercising its soft power in Southeast Asia by collaborating with Cambodia to transform Sihanoukville into an economic city (Luo, 2023). From a feminist perspective, this policy reflects elements of masculinity, as the government prioritizes interstate cooperation over the human security—particularly women—who are increasingly vulnerable to being re-trafficked or even criminalized by the state.

            In addition, the large number of Indonesians involved in illegal gambling practices in Cambodia has prompted the Indonesian government to tighten security measures and cooperate with Cambodia through the Cambodia-Indonesia Bilateral Meeting on Immigration Matters to eradicate this crime. Feminist perspectives criticize government policies for being overly masculine, as they tend to prioritize state security and interstate cooperation. Feminist scholars also critique traditional theories that prioritize state interest over individual security, ultimately placing the safety of victims below the security needs of the state. In terms of interstate cooperation, policies developed by regional and international organizations primarily focus on strengthening borders, enhancing cooperation, improving law enforcement, and tightening the control of document production. These approaches concentrate on punishing perpetrators without addressing the structural problems that make victims vulnerable to exploitation by transnational crime syndicates. Moreover, because state policies are focused on state security, victims are often treated as criminals and deported without any support services. This lack of protection leaves them vulnerable to being trafficked again (Lobasz, 2009).

Conclusion

Feminist perspectives offer a critical space for women’s voices in international politics, especially in addressing the impact of illegal gambling and transnational crime. Gender inequality in social structures and patriarchal culture makes women the most vulnerable to exploitation, violence, and subordination. The case of gambling in Cambodia shows how women’s safety and rights are marginalized in favor of the state’s masculine interests. The state upholds the patriarchal system through policies that prioritize national security over individual protection. Therefore, it is important for governments, both at the domestic and regional levels, to consider gender-sensitive policies to prioritize human security that guarantees the rights, safety, and dignity of every citizen, ensuring protection without gender discrimination.

Cambodia dismisses Thai army accusation that it breached truce and international law after incident near border.

A Thai soldier has been seriously injured by a landmine near the Cambodian border, days after both countries agreed to a ceasefire following last month’s deadly border clashes.

The soldier’s left ankle was badly damaged on Tuesday after he stepped on the device while patrolling about 1km (0.6 miles) from the Ta Moan Thom Temple in Thailand’s Surin province, the army said. He is receiving treatment in hospital.

Thai army spokesperson Major General Winthai Suvaree said the incident proved Cambodia had breached the truce and violated international agreements, including the Ottawa Convention banning landmines.

“Cambodia continues to covertly plant landmines while the Thai army has consistently adhered to peaceful approaches and has not been the initiating party,” he said.

The statement warned that if violations continued, Thailand might “exercise the right of self-defence under international law principles to resolve situations that cause Thailand to continuously lose personnel due to violations of ceasefire agreements and sovereignty encroachments by Cambodian military forces”.

Phnom Penh dismissed the accusation, insisting it has not laid new mines.

“Cambodia, as a proud and responsible State Party to the Ottawa Convention, maintains an absolute and uncompromising position: we have never used, produced, or deployed new landmines under any circumstances, and we strictly and fully honour our obligations under international law,” the Cambodian Ministry of National Defence said in a social media post.

This is the fourth landmine incident in recent weeks involving Thai soldiers along the two Southeast Asian neighbours’ disputed border. On Saturday, three soldiers were injured in a blast between Thailand’s Sisaket province and Cambodia’s Preah Vihear province.

Two earlier incidents on July 16 and 23 prompted a downgrade in diplomatic relations and triggered five days of fighting that erupted on July 24.

Those battles, the worst between the neighbours in more than a decade, saw exchanges of artillery fire and air strikes that killed at least 43 people and displaced more than 300,000 on both sides.

Thailand has accused Cambodia of planting mines on its side of the border, which stretches 817km (508 miles), with ownership of the Ta Moan Thom and 11th-century Preah Vihear temples at the heart of the dispute.

The fragile truce has held since last week when both governments agreed to allow Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) observers to monitor contested areas to prevent further fighting.

It is the third incident in a few weeks in which Thai soldiers have been injured by mines around the border.

Three Thai soldiers have been injured by a landmine while patrolling the border with Cambodia, according to the army, days after the two neighbours agreed to a detailed ceasefire following a violent five-day conflict last month.

One soldier lost a foot and two others were injured after one of them stepped on a landmine as they patrolled an area between Thailand’s Sisaket and Cambodia’s Preah Vihear provinces on Saturday morning, the Royal Thai Armed Forces said.

One soldier suffered a severe leg injury, another was wounded in the back and arm, and the third had extreme pressure damage to the ear, it said.

There was no immediate comment from Cambodia’s defence ministry.

It is the third incident in a few weeks in which Thai soldiers have been injured by mines while patrolling along the border.

Two previous similar incidents led to the downgrading of diplomatic relations and triggered five days of fighting.

The Southeast Asian neighbours were engaged in deadly border clashes from July 24-28, in the worst fighting between the two in more than a decade.

The exchanges of artillery fire, infantry battles and jet fighter sorties killed at least 43 people.

The clashes halted with a ceasefire on July 28 after United States President Donald Trump warned both sides that he would not conclude trade deals with them if fighting continued.

A meeting of defence officials in Kuala Lumpur ended on Thursday with a deal to extend the ceasefire, and the two sides also agreed to allow observers from the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) to inspect disputed border areas to ensure hostilities do not resume.

Bangkok accused Cambodia of planting landmines on the Thai side of the disputed border that injured soldiers on July 16 and July 23. Phnom Penh denied it had placed any new mines and said the soldiers had veered off agreed routes and triggered old landmines left from its decades of war.

Both sides agree to extend truce, though Thailand still holds 18 Cambodian soldiers taken hours after truce implemented.

Cambodia and Thailand have agreed to allow observers from the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) to monitor a fragile ceasefire that ended five days of deadly border clashes last month.

Cambodian Defence Minister Tea Seiha and Thailand’s acting Defence Minister Nattaphon Narkphanit concluded four days of talks in Kuala Lumpur on Thursday aimed at thrashing out the terms of the Malaysia-brokered truce, with a joint pledge to continue a freeze on border troop movements and patrols.

The two countries have quarrelled for decades over their 817km (508-mile) undemarcated land border, the latest dispute breaking out after a landmine explosion on the border wounded five Thai soldiers last month, with the resulting fighting killing at least 43 people.

According to a joint statement of the so-called General Border Committee, each country will set up its own interim observer team comprised of defence officials from the ASEAN regional bloc and coordinated by current chair Malaysia, pending the deployment of a formal observer mission.

The United States welcomed the developments as an “important step forward in solidifying the ceasefire arrangement and establishing the ASEAN observation mechanism”, said US Secretary of State Marco Rubio in a statement on Thursday.

“President Trump and I expect the governments of Cambodia and Thailand to fully honor their commitments to end this conflict,” Rubio noted.

The July 28 ceasefire followed economic pressure from US President Donald Trump, who had warned the nations that he would not conclude trade deals with them if the fighting persisted. Washington subsequently lowered tariffs on goods from the two countries from 36 percent to 19 percent at the beginning of this month.

Cambodian Prime Minister Hun Manet nominated Trump for the Nobel Peace Prize on Thursday, lauding him for his “extraordinary statesmanship” and his “visionary and innovative diplomacy” in a letter addressed to the Norwegian Nobel Committee.

“This timely intervention, which averted a potentially devastating conflict, was vital in preventing great loss of lives and paved the pay towards the restoration of peace,” he said.

Shaky deal

Implementation of the deal was initially bumpy, with both Thailand and Cambodia accusing each other of violating international humanitarian laws and breaching the truce in the first few days of its implementation.

While both sides have now extended the shaky deal, the issue of 18 Cambodian soldiers captured just hours after the ceasefire took effect remains a sticking point.

Cambodia had accused Thailand of mistreating the captured men, who initially numbered 20, with two wounded members repatriated on Friday. Thai authorities called the group “prisoners of war” and said they would only be freed and repatriated following an end to the conflict.

The joint statement did not directly mention them, but it noted that the captives should be “immediately released and repatriated after the cessation of active hostilities”.

Tensions have been growing between the two countries since May, when a Cambodian soldier was killed in a confrontation that created a diplomatic rift and roiled Thailand’s domestic politics.

Ubon Ratchathani, Thailand – As Thai and Cambodian officials meet for talks in the Malaysian capital Kuala Lumpur to cement a fragile ceasefire, sources on the ground say troops continue to build up on both sides of their disputed border.

Malaysia helped mediate a truce on July 28 that brought to an end five days of fierce clashes between Cambodian and Thai forces.

But the two neighbouring countries have accused the other of violating the terms of the shaky ceasefire, even while their officials attend border talks in Kuala Lumpur that began on Monday.

The four-day summit will conclude on Thursday with a meeting scheduled between Thai Deputy Defence Minister Natthaphon Nakpanit and Cambodian Defence Minister Tea Seiha, which will also be attended by observers from Malaysia, China and the United States.

“It can erupt at any time; the situation is not stable,” said Wasawat Puangpornsri, a member of Thailand’s parliament whose constituency includes Ubon Ratchathani province’s Nam Yuen district on the border with Cambodia.

On Tuesday, Wasawat Puangpornsri visited the area and said a large number of Thai and Cambodian troops were stationed some 50 metres away from each other around the Chong Anma border crossing in Nam Yuen district.

The ongoing tension has stymied efforts to return some 20,000 Thai people to their homes in Ubon Ratchathani, which came under attack on July 24 when simmering tensions exploded into heavy fighting between the two countries.

Wasawat Puangpornsri and other representatives from Thailand’s government were inspecting civilian homes damaged in the area during the fighting to assess reparation payments.

Residents of the area told Al Jazeera that they were already on high alert after a brief firefight in May left one Cambodian soldier dead and diplomatic relations between Bangkok and Phnom Penh soured as a result.

Both militaries blamed each other for firing the first shots during the May incident and also the all-out clashes that erupted on July 24, which included Cambodian forces firing artillery and rockets into civilian neighbourhoods in Thailand and Thai fighter jets bombing Cambodia.

Local Thai resident Phian Somsri said she was feeding her ducks when the explosions started in July.

“I prepared for it, but I never really thought it would happen,” she said, sitting on the tile floor of a Buddhist pagoda where she has been sheltering for more than 10 days.

“Bombs were falling in the rice fields,” Phian Somsri said, recounting to Al Jazeera how she received a frantic phone call while gathering her belongings to flee.

One of her closest friends, known affectionately as Grandma Lao, had just been killed when a rocket struck her house.

“I was shocked and sad, I couldn’t believe it, and I hoped it wasn’t true. But I was also so scared, because at that same time I could hear the gunfire and bombs, and I couldn’t do anything,” she said.

‘I pray everything will be all right and peaceful’

When the guns fell silent on July 28 after five days of fighting, at least 24 civilians had been killed – eight in Cambodia and 16 in Thailand – and more than 260,000 people had been displaced from their homes on both sides of the border.

While the ceasefire is holding, both countries continue to accuse the other of violations since the ceasefire went into effect – even while the General Border Committee meeting talks in Kuala Lumpur got under way this week to prevent further clashes.

Cambodia’s former longtime leader Hun Sen claimed on Sunday that a renewed Thai offensive was imminent, although it never materialised.

Despite handing power to his son, Prime Minister Hun Manet, in 2023, Hun Sen is largely seen as being the country’s real power and continuing to call the shots.

The head of a district in Ubon Ratchathani, located away from the fighting and where displaced Thai people evacuated to, also confirmed that people are not yet returning home due to the ongoing tension and reports of renewed troop build-ups.

The district official, who asked that his name not be used as he was not authorised to talk to the media, said the Thai military is wary of its Cambodian counterpart.

“They don’t trust the Cambodian side,” he said, adding that many of the evacuees have been traumatised by their recent experience.

Netagit, 46, a janitor for a village hospital, told how he was taking refuge at a bomb shelter near a Buddhist temple when his house was destroyed by rocket fire on July 25.

“I have no idea what I’m going to do next,” he told Al Jazeera while inspecting the ruins of his home.

Netagit had lived here with his two children, his wife and her parents. Now his family’s personal belongings have spilled into the street and concrete walls painted a bright blue are crumbled, while a corrugated iron roof lies strewn across the ground in pieces.

At first, he tried to hide the news from his kids that their house had been destroyed.

“I didn’t want to tell them, but they saw the pictures and started crying,” Netagit said. “I’m just trying to prepare myself for whatever comes next,” he added.

Displaced residents in this district hope the outcome of the border talks in Kuala Lumpur will bring stability, but continued troop movements and diplomatic sparring are leaving them anxious.

After a week away from home, Phian Somsri’s husband was allowed to briefly return to check on their property.

By then, all of her ducks had died, she said.

“I feel really overwhelmed, and I just want to go home,” she said.

“I pray everything will be all right and peaceful between the two countries.”

A fragile truce between the Southeast Asian neighbours continues to hold, following five days of deadly border clashes.

Officials from Thailand and Cambodia have met in Malaysia for the start of border talks, a week after a fragile ceasefire brought an end to an eruption of five days of deadly clashes between the two countries.

The meeting on Monday came ahead of a key meeting on Thursday, which is expected to be led by the Thai and Cambodian defence ministers.

This week’s talks, which will be observed by representatives from China, Malaysia and the United States, aim to iron out plans to maintain the current truce and avoid future border confrontations.

They will include finalising details for a monitoring team from the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Malaysian Chief of Defence Forces General Mohd Nizam Jaffar said on Monday.

The sessions in Malaysia follow the worst fighting between Thailand and Cambodia in more than a decade.

Clashes along the long-disputed border last month killed at least 43 people, including civilians, and left more than 300,000 others displaced, according to the Reuters news agency.

Relations between the neighbours deteriorated in May, when a Cambodian soldier was killed in a border skirmish, before worsening when Thai soldiers were injured by landmines in contested territory last month.

The Southeast Asian countries downgraded diplomatic relations and violence broke out, which both sides blamed the other for starting.

The recent fighting involved infantry clashes, artillery exchanges, air strikes and rocket fire.

A ceasefire was announced on July 28, in part following economic pressure from US President Donald Trump, who warned both countries that they could not make trade deals with Washington without a ceasefire.

Despite the fragile truce, tensions remain high and mistrust between the two sides lingers.

Cambodia’s defence ministry has accused Thailand of violating the terms of the ceasefire by installing barbed wire in a disputed border area, while the Thai military has suggested that the Cambodian army has reinforced troops in key areas.

Both countries have given foreign observers tours of last month’s battle sites, while seeking to show the damage allegedly inflicted by the other nation.

Thailand and Cambodia also accuse each other of violating international humanitarian laws by targeting citizens.

Phnom Penh continues to demand the release of 18 of its captured troops, whom Bangkok says it will only release following “a complete cessation of the armed conflict, not just a ceasefire”.

On Friday, Thailand returned two wounded Cambodian soldiers through a border checkpoint connecting Thailand’s Surin province and Cambodia’s Oddar Meanchey.

The neighbours dispute how the troops came to be captured, with Thailand rejecting Cambodia’s claims that the troops approached Thai positions to offer post-conflict greetings.