Amid the ongoing digital revolution, education has become one of the sectors most affected by technological advancements. Countries worldwide, including Indonesia, India, and Malaysia, have recognized the importance of leveraging technology to enhance access to and the quality of education, particularly in remote or underserved areas. Digital education initiatives have emerged as a primary focus in efforts to expand educational access and improve digital skills among the populace. Programs like 1BestariNet in Malaysia, Digital India in India, and various digital education initiatives in Indonesia are designed to address the challenges of the digital age and prepare communities for a more connected future.

The selection of the topic comparing digital literacy in Indonesia, India, and Malaysia is based on the GSMA Mobile Connectivity Index 2023, which categorizes all three countries in the “Advanced” group. This index assesses the performance of 170 countries, covering 99% of the world’s population, with a focus on four key factors that support mobile internet adoption: infrastructure, affordability, consumer readiness, and content and services. Countries in the “Advanced” category exhibit high performance on three of these four factors and generally have significant mobile internet penetration rates (UNICEF EAPRO, 2024).

In this context, Indonesia, India, and Malaysia were chosen because they all demonstrate strong performance on the determinants assessed in the GSMA Mobile Connectivity Index, namely infrastructure, affordability, consumer readiness, and the availability of digital content. Although they belong to the same category, each of these countries faces different challenges and opportunities in adopting digital technology within their educational systems. These differences provide a rich perspective for analysis, especially regarding the practical implementation of digital initiatives and literacy.

Further assessments are based on the GSMA Mobile Connectivity Index data, which classifies countries with scores above 80 as leaders, scores above 65 as advanced, and so forth. Indonesia, India, and Malaysia are classified as advanced with significant scores, indicating that they excel in most factors determining technology adoption. These countries serve as compelling examples of how digital education can be further developed, supported by robust infrastructure, affordable services, increasing consumer readiness, and sufficient availability of digital content.

To gain a deeper understanding of how these three countries advance in digital literacy, we will use the four enablers from the GSMA Mobile Connectivity Index as our main analytical framework (GSMA, 2023):

1. Infrastructure: Examining how each country provides internet networks and technologies that support digital education adoption.
2. Affordability: measuring the extent to which the costs of internet usage and other technologies are accessible to the broader population.
3. Consumer readiness: identifying the level of preparedness and capability among communities to utilize digital services.
4. Content and Services: Analyzing the availability of digital content and supporting services that facilitate digital learning processes.

Additionally, we will consider the socio-economic context of each country to strengthen our analysis and highlight flagship programs aimed at enhancing digital literacy among students and teachers (UNICEF EAPRO, 2024).

Socio-Economic Context

The three countries have differing socio-economic contexts, yet each faces significant challenges in integrating technology into the education sector. Indonesia, the world’s largest archipelagic nation with over 270 million inhabitants, has a vast geographical area with a marked gap in access between urban and rural regions. In Indonesia, the biggest challenge is reaching the 3T areas (frontier, outermost, and disadvantaged), where digital infrastructure is often limited.

India, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, is the world’s largest democracy. While India possesses significant economic strength, internet and technology access remains uneven, particularly in rural areas. However, the Indian government actively promotes digitalization through the Digital India initiative, which aims to position India as a leading digital economy.

Malaysia, with a population of about 33 million, is more advanced in terms of technological infrastructure compared to Indonesia and India. The country is firmly committed to digital education, as seen in the 1BestariNet program, which provides internet connectivity to schools nationwide. Although Malaysia has made significant progress, challenges remain in ensuring affordability and enhancing digital skills among the population.

Digital Infrastructure

According to the GSMA Mobile Connectivity Index 2023, the three countries exhibit varying levels of infrastructure development. Malaysia leads with a score of 90.3 for digital infrastructure. This score reflects a wide and reliable internet network, along with strong infrastructure support for digital education initiatives like 1BestariNet. This program aims to provide uniform internet connectivity in Malaysia’s public schools while offering an online learning platform accessible to students nationwide (Subramaniam, 2023).

India, with an infrastructure score of 71.34, has a rapidly growing internet network but still faces challenges in underserved rural areas. Nonetheless, Digital India focuses on enhancing technology infrastructure throughout the country, especially to expand internet access in less reachable regions. This program includes initiatives like BharatNet, aimed at providing broadband connectivity to over 250,000 villages across India, thus laying a strong foundation for local digital education (Kaka et al., 2019; Mundhe & Chavan, 2023).

Indonesia, with an infrastructure score of 69.8, remains below India and Malaysia regarding digital infrastructure development. One of the largest challenges is uneven internet access, especially in remote areas. While there is no single program that unifies all digital education initiatives as in Malaysia and India, Indonesia has launched various programs like Merdeka Belajar, aiming to expand internet and technology access in schools, and belajar.id, which provides email accounts and online learning platforms for students and teachers. Additionally, the Gerakan Nasional Literasi Digital (GNLD) initiative focuses on improving digital skills for the wider community (SEAMEO Regional Open Learning Center, 2023).

Affordability

In terms of affordability, Indonesia excels with a score of 82.75, indicating that the cost of internet access is relatively more affordable compared to India and Malaysia. Government policies promoting cheap internet access and affordable data packages have helped reduce barriers for low-income communities to access digital services. Programs like Merdeka Belajar also provide free internet access for students and teachers nationwide, enhancing affordability among learners (SEAMEO Regional Open Learning Center, 2023).

India, with a score of 68.62, still faces challenges regarding affordability in rural areas, where internet access remains costly and limited. However, the Digital India initiative has helped lower digital service costs through expanded telecommunications infrastructure and the launch of various inexpensive internet packages for low-income communities (Kaka et al., 2019; Mundhe & Chavan, 2023).

Malaysia, with a score of 69.53, demonstrates that although the country has good infrastructure, the cost of internet access may still pose challenges for some communities. The 1BestariNet program has contributed to reducing internet access costs in schools, but affordability outside school remains a challenge, particularly among low-income populations (Subramaniam, 2023).

Consumer Readiness

Malaysia leads once again with a score of 79.22 in consumer readiness, indicating that the Malaysian population possesses relatively good digital literacy and is prepared to adopt technology in daily life. The 1BestariNet program has equipped students and teachers to utilize technology in the learning process. Additionally, other initiatives, such as the ICT Teacher Training Program launched by the Malaysian government, aim to enhance educators’ digital skills, ensuring they are ready to adopt new technologies in teaching (Subramaniam, 2023).

Indonesia, with a score of 68.66, despite showing progress, still faces challenges concerning digital skills among the population, particularly in rural areas. One effort to enhance consumer readiness is through the Gerakan Nasional Literasi Digital (GNLD) program, which focuses on providing digital skills training for the general public. At the educational level, the belajar.id program also contributes by providing digital tools that enable students and teachers to participate in the digital education ecosystem (SEAMEO Regional Open Learning Center, 2023).

India, with a score of 59.42, faces the most significant challenges regarding consumer readiness. Although Digital India has driven widespread technology adoption, many Indians still lack the necessary digital skills to leverage such technologies. Digital skills training programs, such as the Pradhan Mantri Gramin Digital Saksharta Abhiyan (PMGDISHA), aim to bridge this gap by providing training to residents in rural areas to enhance their digital literacy (Kaka et al., 2019; Mundhe & Chavan, 2023).

Content and Services

In terms of digital content and services, Malaysia scores 75.78, indicating a wide and diverse availability of digital content and services. The 1BestariNet program provides a comprehensive online learning platform to support the teaching and learning process in schools. Additionally, Malaysia has various educational portals and digital resources that facilitate students and teachers in accessing learning materials (Subramaniam, 2023).

Indonesia, with a score of 67.94, shows that while there has been progress in the availability of digital content, there are still shortcomings in terms of local content and materials in the Indonesian language. Initiatives like belajar.id have provided online learning platforms supporting students and teachers, but further development is needed to enhance the quality and quantity of locally relevant content. The Merdeka Belajar program also seeks to expand access to digital learning materials (SEAMEO Regional Open Learning Center, 2023).

India, with a score of 67.05, faces challenges regarding the adaptation of digital content for various segments of society. Programs such as SWAYAM and DIKSHA, part of Digital India, aim to provide access to digital learning materials in multiple languages and formats; however, accessibility challenges remain, particularly for communities in rural areas (Kaka et al., 2019; Mundhe & Chavan, 2023).

Flagship Programs for Digital Literacy

1. 1BestariNet (Malaysia)

The 1BestariNet program is one of the most ambitious initiatives in Malaysia aimed at strengthening the digital infrastructure in schools. Launched in 2012, the program seeks to provide fast and reliable internet connectivity to all schools across Malaysia. 1BestariNet not only offers internet access but also features a digital learning platform called Frog VLE (Virtual Learning Environment), which has since been replaced by DELIMa (Digital Education Learning Initiative Malaysia). This platform enables students and teachers to collaborate online. DELIMa allows educators and students to access digital materials, work together remotely, and track their learning progress. As of January 2023, the platform has been utilized by 445,883 teachers, lecturers, education officials, and prospective teachers, as well as 4.27 million students (Subramaniam, 2023).

2. Digital India (India)

The Digital India initiative was launched in 2015 by the Indian government with the goal of making India a leading digital economy. This program encompasses various sectors, including education, with a focus on enhancing technological infrastructure, affordability, and digital skills. A key component of Digital India is the online education platforms SWAYAM and DIKSHA, which provide access to thousands of free online courses and educational materials for students and teachers. Additionally, the initiative includes BharatNet, which aims to provide broadband internet access to over 250,000 villages across India (Kaka et al., 2019; Mundhe & Chavan, 2023).

3. Digital Education Initiatives in Indonesia

In Indonesia, although there is no single program that encompasses all aspects of digital literacy, various initiatives have been launched to improve access to digital education. The belajar.id program, initiated by the Ministry of Education and Culture, provides Google accounts integrated with various digital learning tools for students and teachers throughout Indonesia. Additionally, the Merdeka Belajar initiative serves as a broad umbrella covering various efforts to digitize education in Indonesia, including providing internet access to schools in remote areas and developing digital content (SEAMEO Regional Open Learning Center, 2023).
To enhance the digital skills of the broader community, the Gerakan Nasional Literasi Digital (GNLD) was launched in 2021. GNLD focuses on four main pillars: digital literacy, digital ethics, digital culture, and digital security. This program is designed to provide digital skills training to the community, especially in areas where access to technology remains limited.

Conclusion
In comparing digital literacy policies among Indonesia, India, and Malaysia, each country demonstrates strengths in various aspects based on the four key factors of the GSMA Mobile Connectivity Index.

• Malaysia excels in infrastructure (score: 90.3), consumer readiness (score: 79.22), and content and services (score: 75.78). This reflects a strong infrastructure readiness and a more prepared society for adopting digital technology. The 1BestariNet and DELIMa programs exemplify Malaysia’s focus on equitable access to digital education, particularly in the education sector.
• Indonesia stands out in affordability (score: 82.75), indicating that internet access is more affordable for the majority of its population, particularly through the Merdeka Belajar and GNLD programs. Although its infrastructure does not yet match that of Malaysia, Indonesia is striving to reduce the digital divide through various initiatives that expand access to technology in remote regions.
• India, while lacking specific advantages over Indonesia and Malaysia in certain indicators, has ambitious national programs through Digital India and various initiatives to expand infrastructure, such as BharatNet and digital literacy programs in rural areas. Although its infrastructure is not as robust as Malaysia’s, India is focused on improving digital access in remote regions.

The results align with the GSMA Mobile Connectivity Index scores, which show that Malaysia, with its more developed infrastructure and consumer readiness, is ahead in digital literacy compared to Indonesia and India. However, Indonesia excels in affordability, which is crucial for the broader population. Despite facing various challenges, India remains in the “advanced” category due to significant efforts to improve infrastructure and increase access in rural areas, along with various initiatives to provide learning platforms for the community.

The success of digital education in these three countries will heavily depend on collaboration among the government, private sector, and society. Efforts to enhance infrastructure, affordability, digital skills, and the availability of relevant content will be critical in creating an inclusive and sustainable digital education ecosystem. Existing challenges, such as uneven infrastructure in remote areas, must continue to be addressed to ensure that no community is left behind in this digital era.