China’s people, resources, infrastructure, and economy are significantly vulnerable to climate change impacts. In recent years, climate shocks in recent years have become increasingly severe. According to the China Climate Bulletin, last year, extreme weather set records for temperatures and rainfall, including the highest national average temperature on record.

The consequences are costly. In July alone, extreme weather events – mainly heavy rains and floods or their effects – caused around 76.85 billion yuan (US$10.1 billion) in economic losses in China and affected more than 26.4 million people. Additionally, 1.1 million people were relocated, 12,000 houses collapsed, 157,000 were damaged, and 2.42 million hectares of crops were affected.

With the Chinese central authorities providing funding for ongoing relief, President Xi Jinping has also urged efforts to fight floods and droughts to safeguard people’s lives, property, and social stability.

Mandate of heaven and the legitimacy of the CPC

Extreme weather events and the responses to them are politically crucial for Beijing, tied to the “mandate of heaven” and the legitimacy of the Chinese Party of China (CPC). Historically, Chinese rulers have used water management to maintain stability and authority, with failures often seen as signs as that a dynasty has lost its “mandate of heaven,” leading to its downfall. This practice dates back over 4,000 years to Yu the Great of the Xia dynasty, who is said to have tamed the Yellow River. It continued into the 20th century, exemplified by Chairman Mao Zedong swimming in the Yangtze River in a show of power.

Further linking is the legitimacy of the CPC to environmental management is Xi’s prioritization of the environment and related policies critical priorities in domestic policy, including “ecological civilization” (生态文明). This concept seeks to balance China’s rapid economic development with environmental protection. The construction of ecological civilization is also integral to Xi’s central project to achieve the “Great Rejuvenation” of the Chinese nation.

Policy and legislative solutions

The Chinese central authorities have recognized the need for effective strategies to uphold the Party’s legitimacy while also highlighting the need for robust climate resilient infrastructure to handle these challenges. Acknowledging the rising frequency of extreme weather events and their impacts on infrastructure, Beijing has sought to address these concerns through infrastructure-driven national policies and plans.

Key documents, such as National Climate Change Adaptation Strategies from 2013 and 2020, the 14th Five-Year Plan for National Comprehensive Disaster Prevention and Mitigation (2021-2025), the 14th Five-Year Plan for Ecological and Environmental Protection (2021-2025), and the National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy to 2035 guide further national efforts, emphasizing the importance of climate resilient infrastructure.

Challenges and implications

Beijing’s efforts to engineer their way out of climate change impacts through climate resilient infrastructure reflect Chairman Mao Zedong’s belief that ‘man must conquer nature’. This continues to be reflected in the Chinese state’s building of large-scale hydroengineering projects. One notable example is the “sponge cities” (海绵城市) an infrastructure-driven concept. Intended to enhance urban resilience and water management in Chinese cities by collecting, purifying, and re-using at least 70 percent of floodwaters, sponge cities integrate grey-blue-green solutions (such as permeable pavements, green roofs, and stormwater parks).

Yet the engineering-driven approach has faced challenges. The heavy summer floods last year and in 2021 in cities like Beijing, Zhengzhou, Shanghai, and Chengdu highlighted issues over the reliability of the “sponge cities” concept. Despite investments of over 1 trillion yuan (US$140 billion) into “sponge cities” to absorb rainfall and minimise flood damage, the infrastructure has struggled to manage severe flooding. In 2021, an “historically rare” rainfall caused devastating floods, impacting over 14 million people and killing 398 in Zhengzhou.

The direct economic loss was estimated at 53.2 billion yuan (US$8 billion). Critics argue the sponge city concept, designed to handle a once-in-30-years rainfall, was inadequate. Netizens also pointed out that mismanagement of the situation by Zhengzhou officials, who ignored early warnings and slow emergency responses, also exacerbated the crisis.

As the central government pushes forward with large-scale projects aimed at mitigating climate impacts, the gap between high-level planning and on-the-ground implementation becomes increasingly apparent. The disconnect between grand infrastructure plans and localized challenges raises concerns about the sustainability and effectiveness of these efforts in addressing climate resilience in cities.

Adding to this the absence of coordination between municipalities and regional governments in flood prone areas.  As others note, in the case of the Yangtze and Pearl deltas, there is a lack of delta-wide plans that “systematically zone land and prioritise investments within one unified hydrological system”, resulting in a fragmented approach to disaster management. In the aftermath of the 2023 Beijing flood, for instance, netizens pointed out that that government bodies often look after their own jurisdiction. By aiming to move the problem and divert the floods quickly, even more pressure was placed on the downstream areas, thereby further exacerbating the situation.

Conclusion

The relentless barrage of extreme weather events throughout this year underscores the urgent need for China to rethink its approach to climate resilience. As the country grapples with increasing economic losses and social upheavals due to these climatic shocks, the dissonance between grand infrastructure plans and their on-the-ground efficacy becomes more apparent. Moving forward, bridging this gap will be crucial for ensuring not only the safety and stability of China’s infrastructure but also the legitimacy and effectiveness of its climate adaptation strategies.